conservation – ODYSSEA

08June

5 Marine Conservation Success Stories

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On the 8^th of June we celebrate the World Oceans Day, a day to remind everyone of the major role the oceans have in everyday life. Some of you might think that the world currently has more pressing urgencies than worrying about the health of our oceans, but even at times of a health crisis and protests the ocean is setting an example. The oceans are an incredible reservoir of new compounds that have led to the development of new antibacterial and antiviral treatments. Even the test used for the detection of COVID-19 relies on enzymes that were first discovered in deep-sea bacteria back in 1969. The most successful conservation projects are the results of communities standing by each other and working towards a common goal of improving livelihoods and protecting ecosystems.

The theme of the UN World Oceans Day 2020 is “Innovation for a Sustainable Ocean”. The oceans are currently suffering from the combined effects of the climate crisis, overfishing, and habitat degradation. As the challenges to the ocean continue to grow, so does the need for novel solutions and the people driving them. At times, the information relating to the current state of the oceans (think coral bleaching, endangered species, mangrove deforestation) can be overwhelming, and downright depressing. What we all need right now is some #oceanoptimism to remind ourselves that there is hope of positive change, which is why we have chosen 5 inspiring marine conservation success stories that highlight projects that have made a difference.

1. Community participation in the protection of hawksbill nesting sites

The first story is that of the hawksbill turtle , which is listed as “critically endangered” on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. Until as recently as 2007, the hawksbill turtle was thought to be essentially extinct in the Eastern Pacific. However, during an international workshop, experts shared local knowledge from their perspective areas, including nesting reports, which brought new hope for the species in the Eastern Pacific. In 2009, a team of experts visited the Estero Padre Ramos Nature Reserve in Nicaragua, which was rumoured to host a significant number of hawksbill turtles. What they found exceeded all expectations: the estuary hosts 40% of the known hawksbill nesting sites in the entire eastern Pacific. Unfortunately, the majority of nests were being poached for subsistence.

Nesting hawksbill. Photo credit: WCS

The Nicaraguan Hawksbill Project was initiated in 2010 and builds on the cohesive participation of local communities, government institutions, and various NGOs. The project has had a tremendous impact, resulting in the protection of more than 500 nests, the release of more than 50,000 hatchlings, satellite tracking of individual turtles, and monitoring of nesting beaches. Their secret to success? The community is directly involved in the decision-making process and the locals receive compensations for reporting nesting hawksbill as an incentive to protect rather than poach nests. That way the scientists have more allies in the field to monitor vast strips of beaches and the locals are given a sustainable alternative to poaching.

Protected incubation of nests. (c) Anna Schleimer

Marking of juvenile hawksbill in Padre Ramos Estuary. (c) Anna Schleimer

Contributors of Nicaraguan Hawksbill Project. (c) Anna Schleimer

2. Accelerating heat tolerance in corals

Coral reefs aren’t doing well to put it mildly. The coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef decreased by about half due to summer heat waves in 2016 and 2017, followed by an 89% drop in coral larval recruitment in 2018. Despite this rapid loss, scientists have made a discovery that brings some hope for corals. Generally, when the water gets too warm, corals expel the algal symbionts that live in their tissue, leading to coral bleaching. Buerger and colleagues grew these algal symbionts at elevated temperatures (31°C) in the laboratory for 4 years. Their hope was to increase the heat-tolerance of the symbiont, which could, in turn, increase the heat-tolerance of corals when reintroduced into the host. And did it work? Three of the 10 laboratory heat-evolved algal symbionts indeed increased bleaching tolerance in corals. These findings are unlikely to be the desperately needed quick-fix to the problems that corals face. However, the study significantly improved our understanding on heat-tolerance in corals and, maybe, such heat-evolved algal symbionts could be used in coral reef restoration projects.

3. Comeback of the Leviathans

Some whales have still not recovered from commercial whaling. Of particular concern is the case of the North Atlantic right whale of which there are only about 400 animals left. However, other species have made a successful comeback following international bans on commercial whaling. The nearly complete protection of the fin whale, the second largest animal after the blue whale, throughout its range has allowed the global population to reach around 100,000 mature individuals, population trend increasing. This trend is so encouraging that the status was moved from “endangered” to the less severe “vulnerable” category on the IUCN list of endangered species in 2018. Fin whales generally live in deep, off-shore waters, where there is minimal fishing or shipping intensity, which could explain why they fared so much better than the North Atlantic right whales. However, other whales with offshore distributions, such as blue whales, still only number a few thousand individuals in the North Atlantic. The different recovery rates among species, despite the international ban on commercial hunting, highlight that whales now face a plethora of challenges, related to increased fishing and shipping intensity and climate-induced ecosystem changes.

Photo Credit: TerreSky/MICS Photo

4. Tubbataha Reef: A Shark Eden

Located in the coral triangle in the Philippines, the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park was found to host an incredibly high number of reef sharks during a recent expedition led by researchers from the Large Marine Vertebrates Research Institute Philippines, the Tubbataha Management Office, and the Marine Megafauna Foundation. These numbers provide hope because worldwide many shark populations are in decline and reef health is deteriorating. That is why the find of such a healthy reef with frequent shark sightings is indeed reason to celebrate! Using underwater visual surveys and underwater camera traps, the scientists studied the abundance and biodiversity of sharks and rays at this reef, which was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site back in 1993. They observed some of the highest abundances of grey reef sharks and whitetip reef sharks known worldwide! There are multiple reasons for the success of this natural park. One of the most important factors is that the park is very well managed and rules of no-take are enforced thanks to the dedicated staff of the Tubbataha Management Office and the Rangers of Tubbataha Reefs. Its remoteness, size and protection since the 1980s have likely also contributed to the conservation of a healthy ecosystem. Enforcement of regulations and the participation of local communities are a key ingredient to successful marine protected areas, otherwise they risk to turn into so-called “paper-parks” that only exist on paper.

5. Rewilding the coast one tree at a time

Mangrove forests shelter our shores, harbour an incredible biodiversity and absorb a significant amount of CO₂. In short, the livelihoods of many communities depend on mangroves. However, almost half of the total mangrove forest cover in the world has disappeared since 1980 due to an increase in commercial logging, fuel wood collection, conversion to rice or coconut agriculture, and aquaculture ponds (e.g. shrimp farms). To counter this degradation, many mangrove planting initiatives have mobilised volunteers to replant mangroves in recent years. While the intentions are noble, the IUCN warns that such mass mangrove planting efforts are often not sustainable. For instance a common mistake in mangrove restoration is not choosing the right species for the right site and not getting the ‘right mix’ of species. The good news? With the increasing wealth and availability of knowledge on mangroves and how to restore them, successful restoration projects are possible. The Mangrove Action Project promotes and teaches its best practice ‘Community-Based Ecological Mangrove Restoration’ technique. Their method aims to address the problems that caused mangrove loss in the first place and focuses on understanding the ecology, hydrology (water flows), and needs of the local community to develop a customised restoration plan. Already this technique has been successfully applied to rehabilitate mangroves in Thailand and Indonesia, as part of the post-tsunami recovery. Through training workshops across the world, we are sure to see more successful mangrove restoration initiatives in future.

Malapascua Island, Philippines. (c) Anna Schleimer

(c) Antonio Busiello | WWF-US

Text written by Anna Schleimer. Happy World Oceans Day!

Image credit cover photo: Shutterstock/WWF/Simon Pierce/TerreSky MICS photo/Anna Schleimer
10May

Marine Protected Areas – Why do we need them?

We live on a blue planet. Oceans cover about 70% of the Earth’s surface, hold 97% of its water, and represent 90% of all habitable space on the planet. Coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, kelp forests, saltmarshes and seagrass beds belong to the most biodiverse systems of the oceans and are the nurseries for millions of marine species. Some tropical coral reefs can hold up 1,000 different species per m². With 15% of dietary intake of animal protein provided by fisheries and millions of people depending on fisheries for their livelihoods, these nursery grounds are essential to replenish commercial fish stocks. Furthermore, coastal systems are amazing at absorbing or sequestering carbon at rates up to 50 times those of the same area of tropical forests. Therefore, coastal areas are immensely important in the fight against the climate crisis.

However, our coastal ecosystems, and with them the many species that rely on them, are degrading and disappearing at alarming rates. Today, over 60% of the human population lives on or near a coastline and 80% of tourism is concentrated near coastal areas. Overfishing, pollution, ocean acidification and unsustainable resource extraction has severe impacts on the health of our coasts. 60% of the world’s major marine ecosystems that support livelihoods have already been degraded or lost and more than half of the world’s marine species will face extinction by 2100 if we don’t take drastic actions.

Ivan Colic | AfroGraphique for the Save Our Seas Foundation

One of the most effective means for protecting coastal biodiversity is through the establishment and proper management of Marine Protected Areas, or MPAs. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) defines MPAs as “An area designated and effectively managed to protect marine ecosystems, processes, habitats, and species, which can contribute to the restoration and replenishment of resources for social, economic, and cultural enrichment.”

Some MPAs completely inhibit human activities, while others attempt to regulate human presence and activity, to render the use of marine resources more sustainable and more diverse. The benefits of properly designed and managed MPAs are plentiful and diverse. They protect coastal biodiversity and ecosystem services and increase ecosystem resilience and productivity. Fisheries depend on this. Furthermore, healthy coastal ecosystems offer coastal protection against storm surges, that become increasingly strong and common with climate change. More than that, they offer increased sustainable recreational and eco-tourism opportunities, thereby creating new jobs, and also offer an excellent opportunity for scientific research and environmental education.

Ivan Colic | AfroGraphique for the Save Our Seas Foundation

We depend on healthy coastal ecosystems, for coastal production, nutrition, carbon absorption and sequestration, livelihoods, and cultural and spiritual practices. Yet, less than 10% of coastal areas are efficiently protected. This poses a direct threat to coastal biodiversity but also to our own economic prosperity and societal survival. For these reasons, an MPA well managed network covering at least 30% of the ocean’s surface is needed to guarantee the recovery and protection of the world’s coastal and marine ecosystems and resources. Our very own survival depends on this.

Sources: IUCN, WWF, UNESCO.

Text written by Félix Feider.
01May
The Complicated Story of Shark Exploitation
Happy Sharks = Healthy Oceans

As the ocean’s top predators, sharks provide us with many often overlooked ecosystem services. Perhaps most importantly they help maintain the diversity and abundance of marine species. They do this by keeping populations of lower predatory species in check; thereby ensuring lower trophic levels are not overexploited. It may be counter-intuitive but in this way, the presence of top predators like sharks actually promotes healthy fisheries and helps ensure sustainable exploitation of fish over the long term. Sharks are responsible for keeping other aspects of the marine food web in check as well. For example, they enjoy a diverse diet allowing them to target one prey item when it is in high abundance and shift to alternate prey items when a given population becomes reduced. They prevent herbivorous fish from overeating vegetation, provide essential food sources for scavengers, and remove sick or weak prey. All these services help maintain the health of our oceans. Therefore ensuring our continued benefit of ocean resources like fisheries and oxygen production.

Examples of ecosystem consequences from reduced shark populations

Source: lilywilliamsart.com

Despite all sharks do for our oceans, we continue to kill millions of these crucial animals each year. Shark exploitation is a complicated story, often polarized by cruel practices like shark finning. Unfortunately, the issue extends far past solely shark finning and includes exploitation for other reasons including the use of shark liver, meat, cartilage and skin. We must address disrespectful and wasteful practices like shark finning but a more holistic approach that includes other forms of shark exploitation must also be considered in order to ensure the effective protection of our ocean’s top predators.

Shark Finning

Shark finning is the cruel practice where the fins of an individual are removed and the body is thrown back into the ocean, likely dead or dying. The practice is not only cruel but also extremely wasteful as only a small portion of the animal is actually consumed. Asian markets where shark fin soup is in high demand due to its association with wealth comprise the primary market for shark fins.

Source: www.change.org

Shark in Cosmetics???

Shark liver oil, also known as, squalene or squalane is commonly used in cosmetic products, some supplements, natural health remedies, and vaccines. The vast majority of its use, however, is driven by the cosmetics industry. Shark based squalene (and its derivative, squalane) are often used in sunscreen, foundation, skin moisturizers, lipstick, eye makeup, and many other products due to moisturizing, anti-wrinkle, and restorative properties. A plant-based derivative does exist and some cosmetics brands have committed to its use; however, inconsistent or nonexistent labelling regulations by region mean that the source of squalene is often unclear to consumers.

Shark Meat

The market for shark meat has been steadily increasing according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. This growth is driven by multiple factors. First, the demand for wild fish remains high while the potential for exploitation of wild fish populations is limited. Consumer demand for wild-caught fish, therefore, drives a large portion of the demand for shark meat. Shark meat is often labelled under misleading names to encourage consumer purchase and eliminate the stigma around buying shark products. Check out sharkwater.com for a list of commonly used names for shark meat. Some that you may have encountered already include Rock Salmon, Whitefish, or Lemon fish. Another factor contributing to the growth of the shark meat market is the widespread implementation of finning regulations that require the fins to be naturally attached to the carcass when the shark is landed. These regulations have potentially prompted the development of shark meat markets and simultaneously made shark conservation efforts drastically more complicated. Of course ‘fins naturally attached’ policies are extremely beneficial in eliminating the cruel practice of shark finning; however, they need to be coupled with other fisheries regulations to ensure the sustainable use of sharks.

Source: www.undercurrentnews.com

What's the solution?

The multi-faceted exploitation of sharks does not come with a one size fits all solution. Instead, there are a few key changes that scientists are calling for to ensure shark populations are maintained at healthy levels into the future. For one, improved data collection and recording is essential to inform policy and regulations. The globalized nature of the shark products industry means that catch data are inconsistent across regions. This makes accurate analysis of utilization and trade very difficult. Regulations and policies will only be as good as the data that inform them so improved reporting will go a long way towards improved shark conservation. Other recommendations include improved trade monitoring, standardization of trade and fisheries management systems globally, and supporting legal and sustainable fisheries. To learn more about these international policy recommendations check out this report by the FAO.

Source: www.wildaid.org

What can you do about it?
Many changes are needed on international and national scales regarding fisheries regulations; however, there are meaningful actions that individuals can take. Here are a few:

Support local petitions! Many local NGOs, conservation organizations, or citizen-led groups create petitions that put pressure on local governments to change shark exploitation laws. A quick Google search will find current petitions on the issue in your area. Because of the widespread nature of shark exploitation, it’s important that national and regional governments worldwide begin to make positive changes for shark conservation. If no petition exists in your region start your own!

Educate yourself about hidden shark products in your favourite cosmetic brands: read here for more information, look at the ingredients lists on your cosmetics, and contact your favourite brands to see if they are using shark based squalene or squalane in any of their products. If the answer turns out to be yes put pressure on them to switch to a plant-based alternative.

Write a letter to a cosmetics brand that is using squalene or squalane in their products and urge them to switch to a plant-based alternative.

When buying seafood, be weary of commonly used names for shark and avoid buying these products. Here is a list of some of the most common names.

Take the shark free pledge!
About the author: Kianna is currently a master’s student studying global ocean change. She is from the very landlocked city of Edmonton, Canada but discovered her love of the oceans through diving. She has worked on various conservation and research projects including cetacean monitoring, coral conservation, and as a scientific divemaster.
11February

Celebrating Women in Science

Women are still underrepresented in science and technology careers. To celebrate the International Day of Women and Girls in Science, we want to highlight 5 extraordinary women who have been pioneers in marine sciences. Their inspiring stories, the challenges and achievements, serve as a reminder of how far we have come since the time when women were considered bad luck on ships. Nonetheless, gender equality remains an ongoing problem.

Personally, I have been fortunate to work in research groups that have been very inclusive. The only time I have experienced changes in attitudes towards women in science was during fieldwork. Our team at the station of the Mingan Island Cetacean Study consists mainly of women, who don’t bat an eyelash when they carry heavy fuel tanks, navigate the boats into the harbour, or collect biopsy samples from whales. Visitors to the station seem surprised to see women doing such “tough” jobs, commenting on how strong we are and how well we all work together as a team (implying “despite being women”). Once, a tourist nervously looked at my friend as she was about to reverse the pickup truck and trailer down a ramp and he offered her to do the reversing for her. She waved him off with one hand, telling him “I’ve got this”.

Jeanne Villepreux-Power (1794 –1871) – Mother of Aquariophily

In 1832, the pioneering marine biologist created the world’s first glass aquarium to help her study octopuses and argonauts, solving how argonauts make their distinctive egg cases, a mystery since Aristotle’s time. As a naturalist concerned with conservation, she is also credited with developing sustainable aquaculture principles in Sicily where she lived for more than 20 years. She was a self-taught naturalist who travelled around Sicily recording and describing its flora and fauna, with a particular fascination for shells. She published her work in a book entitled “Observations et expériences physiques sur plusieurs animaux marins et terrestres”. A shipwreck in 1843 carried most of Villepreux-Power’s books and collections to the bottom of the ocean and her work was largely forgotten for more than a century. In 1997, a major crater on Venus was named after Villepreux-Power as recognition for her achievements.

Jeanne Villepreux-Power

The argonaut, or paper nautilus, is actually an octopus. Females make a parchment-like shell to carry incubating eggs and control where they swim in the water column. Photo by Fred Bavendam, Nat Geo Image Collection

Rachel Carson (1907 – 1964)

Rachel Carson is best known for her book “Silent Spring”, which documented the adverse environmental effects caused by the indiscriminate use of pesticides. She has been credited with laying the foundation of the global environmental movement. Her work as a marine scientist, however, extends far beyond one impressive book. With her talent for both literature and biology, she became an excellent science communicator and advocate. Carson’s first book, Under the Sea-Wind, highlighted her unique ability to present deeply intricate scientific material in clear poetic language that could captivate her readers and pique their interest in the natural world. In 1951, her second book, The Sea Around Us, was published and eventually translated into 32 languages, remaining in the New York Times’ best-seller list for 81 weeks.

It is a curious situation that the sea, from which life first arose should now be threatened by the activities of one form of that life. But the sea, though changed in a sinister way, will continue to exist; the threat is rather to life itself. ― Rachel Carson, The Sea Around Us

Rachel Carson in 1962. (Photographer: Alfred Eisenstaedt; National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution)

Marie Tharp (1920 – 2006)

Marie Tharp is credited with producing one of the world’s first comprehensive maps of the ocean floor in the 1950s. As a woman, Tharp was not allowed onboard the research vessel (as it was considered to bring bad luck); instead, she used her analytical skills to crunch the numbers that were collected at sea and charted them out by hand. The picture that unfolded in front of her was astonishing: until then, the ocean floor was assumed to be flat and barren, but her work showed a dynamic three-dimensional space with mountains, valleys, and trenches. The continuous, deep trench splitting a mountain range along the entire Atlantic Ocean lead Tharp to propose to her supervisor Bruce Heezen that they were looking at a rift valley. But Heezen dismissed the hypothesis as “girl talk” because the concept of continental drift was still controversial within the scientific community. With Tharp’s ocean floor maps in hand, the Mid-Atlantic ridge was described and, in the 1960s, scientists formulated the theory of plate tectonics.

Marie Tharp used hundreds of seismic profiles to reconstruct the topography of the seafloor, like here of the Atlantic Ocean. Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory

Marie Tharp

Sylvia Earle (1935 -) – Her Deepness

Sylvia Earle has been at the forefront of ocean exploration for more than four decades. Earle was a pioneer in the use of modern self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) gear and the development of deep-sea submersibles. She has led over 100 expeditions worldwide, involving more than 7,000 hours of underwater research. In 1970, after being rejected from participating in Tektite I, an underwater research laboratory, because she was a woman, she led the first team of women aquanauts on a two-week underwater living experiment, called Tektite II. The project consisted of a submerged habitat capsule and aimed to explore the marine realm and test the health effects of prolonged living in underwater structures. During this time, she observed the effects of pollution on coral reefs first hand. Earle later became the first woman to serve as chief scientist for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the first woman to serve as an explorer in residence for the National Geographic Society. Earle is dedicating much of her energy and time to promoting marine conservation and stewardship. She has authored more than 190 publications on marine science and technology. Her 1995 book, Sea Change: A Message of the Oceans, is an urgent plea for the preservation of the world’s fragile and rapidly deteriorating ocean ecosystems.

Sylvia Earle

“Knowing is the key to caring, and with caring there is hope that people will be motivated to take positive actions. They might not care even if they know, but they can’t care if they are unaware.” – Sylvia Earle

“With every drop of water you drink, every breath you take, you’re connected to the sea. No matter where on Earth you live. Most of the oxygen in the atmosphere is generated by the sea.” – Sylvia Earle

Asha de Vos

Asha de Vos is a Sri Lankan marine biologist, ocean educator, and pioneer of blue whale research within the northern Indian Ocean. She is the founder of Oceanswell, Sri Lanka’s first marine conservation research and education organization. Her passion for marine biology led her to set up the first long-term study on blue whales in the region. When she started working on the project, few people in Sri Lanka even knew that they had whales in their waters. Asha’s work has not only shown that these blue whales do not display typical seasonal migrations as they do in other oceans, but she has also engaged local people and the government to promote the protection of these animals. She has since obtained her Ph.D. in marine mammal research, the first Sri Lankan to do so, inspiring more students than ever to become marine biologists. She is a TED Senior Fellow, Marine Conservation Action Fund Fellow, and World Economic Forum Young Global Leader.

I believe that if we want to save our oceans, every coastline needs a LOCAL hero – someone who speaks the language, can see the problems and can help to address the solutions – someone who is invested in the long-term. – Asha de Vos

Asha de Vos. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/find-explorers/asha-de-vos

Article written by Anna Schleimer.
10February

The Hidden Costs of Seafood

Article by Kianna Gallagher.

“But do you still eat fish?” Aside from the scenario where I’m stranded on a desert island and only have meat as a food source, this question about our fishy friends is one of the most common questions regarding my diet. I decided long ago that given my stance on environmental issues a vegan or vegetarian diet was the way to go. It was always a bit puzzling; however, why fish did not seem to naturally fall into the category of ‘meat’ for a lot of people. They are animals after all!

Continue reading The Hidden Costs of Seafood →
09February
Coastal ecosystems – Threats and challenges
Article written by Venetia Galanaki.

Mangrove forests, seagrass meadows and saltmarshes, collectively referred to as coastal ecosystems, are some of the most valuable habitats on the planet, yet they are being lost at alarming rates. With approximately half of the Earth’s population residing on the coastal zone, anthropogenic (meaning caused by humans) pressure on these ecosystems is much higher compared to more remote habitats. On a global scale, the annual rate of decline has been estimated to be 1–3% for mangroves, 2–5% for seagrass meadows, 1–2% for saltmarshes. If this trend continues at the same rate over the next 50 years, only 15% of area covered by coastal ecosystems will remain compared to the coverage at the end of World War II. Estimating loss is a tricky business as historical data are limited and more often than not highly inaccurate. However, what is worrisome is that the rates at which we are losing these important ecosystems seem to be accelerating despite the recognition of their invaluable ecosystem services.

(Image credit: Duarte et al., 2008)

Numerous and often interconnected factors have led to this decline.

Coastal development and Tourism: construction of pipelines, structuring of ports and deployment of cables for communication, has made the complete removal of these ecosystems common practice. Infrastructure built to accommodate the rapid increase of the tourism industry is leaving no room for these ecosystems. In addition, tourism related activities such as anchoring over seagrass meadows and the mere overcrowding in coastal areas is intensifying the pressure. Mangroves also suffer from overharvesting as their wood has a number of uses.

Land runoff and Pollution: Due to their close proximity to agricultural land, coastal plants are threatened by land large amounts of fertilisers and pesticides that end up in the water and can ultimately cause their death. The damage caused by runoff is further intensified In river estuaries where water is carried from large stretches of agricultural land. Additionally, specifically for seagrass meadows untreated sewage waste and aquaculture can be really harmful due to the load of organic matter in the water.

Invasive species also majorly impact these ecosystems as they can alter food webs and destabilise the entire ecosystem.

Climate change related phenomena, primarily sea level rise, majorly affects the long term health of these ecosystems. Mangroves are damaged by excessive water in their roots and destabilisation of their sediment. In seagrass meadows, rising sea levels prevent the necessary light needed for healthy seagrass growth. Saltmarshes are usually constrained by human made structures and so sea level rise forces their area cover to decrease in a process known as coastal squeeze. Mangrove health is also intricately connected with coral reefs as they shelter them from strong currents. Reefs, being further offshore, constitute the first barrier for strong currents and waves and so when they are damaged, mangroves are more susceptible to them.

The vast majority of threats occur on a local level and can be minimised through efficient coastal planning and management. Eliminating local threats and, thus allowing ecosystems to be healthier, can help build resilience against the more widespread effects of climate change. Sadly, the destruction of these ecosystems is often “justified” as a means to generate profit. However, such decision-making neglects the fact that the mere existence of coastal ecosystems greatly contributes to the economy through the ecosystem benefits that they provide, such as protection from storm surges and sea level rise and support of local livelihoods. In recent years, the efforts to conserve our coasts have intensified and the laws and regulations protecting them have strengthened. Yet, until bold commitments are made they will continue to decline at the rates we see today, leaving humans and wildlife at a loss.

About the author: Venetia comes from Greece and the Mediterranean sea has always been her happy place. A Biomedical scientist turned conservationist, whose love for the ocean led her to pursue a career in protecting it. Over the years, she has conducted fieldwork in a variety of fields, including dolphin bioacoustics, marine pollution and seagrass carbon. She currently works in Marine Protected Area planning and management in Greece.

Reference: Duarte, C.M., Dennison, W.C., Orth, R.J. and Carruthers, T.J., 2008. The charisma of coastal ecosystems: addressing the imbalance. Estuaries and coasts, 31(2), pp.233-238. Full article here.
07January

Blue Carbon – The importance of coastal ecosystems in climate change

Article written by Venetia Galanaki.

What is the first thought that springs to mind when thinking about ecosystems that contribute in reducing CO₂? Most probably forests and grasslands right? But what about all the plants that reside on the coasts? Like mangroves, saltmarshes and seagrass meadows.

These ecosystems are present in coastal and shallow waters all over the globe but their significance in CO₂ absorption has only recently started being recognised. The increased research attention gave rise to the term ‘’Blue Carbon’’ referring to carbon stored in their tissues and sediment. Blue carbon ecosystems, similarly to other vegetated ecosystems, remove CO₂ from the water column through photosynthesis leading to a decrease in its total concentration. This decrease creates a disequilibrium in its concentration between the air and the water, thus driving additional CO₂ in the water and removing it from the atmosphere.

Blue carbon ecosystems store carbon in two distinct pools, their plant tissues and the sediment with the latter being the largest. Carbon rich sediment forms as a result of the accumulation of dead plant biomass and can be preserved over millennial timescales. The tissues of coastal plants are particularly resistant to bacterial decomposition due to the low concentration of oxygen in the soil, preventing the release of the carbon they have stored during their lifetime. In addition to locally produced carbon, mangroves and seagrass meadows have the ability to trap carbon floating around in the water, through slowing down water flow and promoting sedimentation of its particles.

Coastal ecosystems are capable of storing significantly larger amounts of carbon per unit area than their terrestrial counterparts. On average, they have been found to store even up to four times higher quantities of carbon. This remarkable ability arises due to their high photosynthetic rates, which allow for increased CO₂ absorption from the water, and their extraordinary capacity to lock carbon in their soil creating large sediment carbon stocks

In addition to their function as carbon sinks, coastal ecosystems provide a range of services necessary for climate change adaptation such as protection from sea level rise and storm surges. Major conservation initiatives, such as the Blue Carbon Initiative, have promoted the efforts to conserve these ecosystems but they continue to degrade at alarming rates. Over the last few decades, mangroves, saltmarshes and seagrass meadows have been declining at an average rate of 100 square kilometres per year, establishing them as some of the most threatened ecosystems on the planet. Inadequate mapping, mainly of seagrass, poses an additional challenge to estimating losses as the original extent cover remains unknown.

Anthropogenic factors relating to increased coastal development are the main reasons behind their degradation. Naturally, the health of these ecosystems majorly influences their carbon trapping ability. Once the plants are destroyed or removed, their sediment becomes exposed releasing several years worth of trapped carbon back into the water, contributing to the increase of greenhouse gases. Studying Blue Carbon is highly important in fully understanding the role of the oceans in the carbon cycle. Also, increased research attention is crucial in attracting restoration funds and strengthening protection measures.

Currently, numerous restoration initiatives are taking place yet no greenhouse gas reduction schemes involving these ecosystems have been developed. The creation of such schemes as well as the inclusion of blue carbon ecosystems in the carbon market could provide powerful incentives for their protection. Given the current levels of CO₂ in the atmosphere, it is critically important that these ecosystems are more rigorously protected and restored so they can continue to provide their much needed benefits for people and wildlife.

About the author: Venetia comes from Greece and the Mediterranean sea has always been her happy place. A Biomedical scientist turned conservationist, whose love for the ocean led her to pursue a career in protecting it. Over the years, she has conducted fieldwork in a variety of fields, including dolphin bioacoustics, marine pollution and seagrass carbon. She currently works in Marine Protected Area planning and management in Greece.

Image credit: Venetia Galanaki, WWF, Joseph Smith, The Blue Carbon Initiative, Anna Schleimer
15April

Ecotourism is coming

Article written by Mel Cosentino.

Seeing animals in their natural environment is full of enjoyment and learning opportunities. Whalewatching, defined by the International Whaling Commission as “any commercial enterprise which provides for the public to see cetaceans in their natural habitat”, is my favourite example. The activity started in the 1950s in the coasts of California observing migrating gray whales from shore. The industry has grown incessantly since, and today over 13 million people go whale and dolphin watching in more than 100 countries around the world.

The experience of observing and interacting with a powerful and beautiful animal at sea is enriched when led by a skilled captain and a knowledgeable guide. Moreover, it has the potential to educate the public about the animals as well as to change their attitude towards the environment. Furthermore, the local communities also benefit from the increase in tourists visiting the area. Indeed, the revenues generated by the whalewatching industry is currently over US$2.1 billion in both direct and indirect expenses, much of which ends up in the local communities such as through hospitality and catering as well as other expenses (e.g., souvenirs).

Whalewatching is a profitable and sustainable form of cetacean exploitation. However, most cetacean observations are currently boat-based and the increased interest in watching whales and dolphins up close has raised concerns over the sustainability of the activity. In fact, short-term effects have been reported for many cetacean species and populations worldwide, impacting from common and bottlenose dolphins to humpback and sperm whales. These effects include changes in the respiration pattern and dynamics, speed and direction of travel, and changes in activity and energy budgets, such as a reduction in the time spent resting or foraging. Changes in behaviour leading to reduced energy intake (or increased energy use) can negatively affect the energy budget, which in turn can affect the reproductive success of individuals, and, potentially, the survival of the population. Studying the impact of whalewatching is important to the understanding of cetaceans’ behavioural response to disturbance and thus has implications for the management of the activity, both in the study area and beyond.

During my undergraduate studies I developed a strong interest in the impact of human activities on cetaceans. I then gained experience as a whalewatching guide and research assistant during the summer times and later on, for my master’s project, I studied the impact of whale watching vessels on sperm whales in Andenes, in northern Norway (Fig. 1).

Mel's study area in northern Norway.

Sperm whales

Sperm whales visiting Andenes waters are adult, solitary individuals. They are present every summer season and likely year-round. Some individuals are re-sighted, within and between years, such as Glenn, who was first identified in 1996 and continues to visit the area even to these days. The diving cycle of sperm whales consists of a long, deep foraging dives (~ 30 min) and a resting period at the surface (~ 8 min). Foraging dives start when the whale flukes (Fig. 2) and soon produces clicks that they use to find their prey.

The vessel from which I conducted my study has two mounted directional hydrophones which allows to track and approach the whales while they are still underwater. I monitored the duration of the foraging dives and surface periods, as well as the respiration pattern and dynamics, and the occurrence of “near surface events” (NSE – previously known as “shallow dives”). NSE are easily recognised, as the whale does not fluke and simply disappears. These NSE are short underwater periods (~ 2 min) that do not involve foraging (i.e., the whales are not clicking) and appear to interrupt resting and normal oxygen intake. They also appear to entail an unnecessary increase in energy expenditure, especially when accompanied by an avoidance behaviour (i.e., moving away). These NSE hadn’t been studied before.

I found that that neither the foraging dive or surface periods, nor the respiration pattern and dynamics were directly affected by the presence of whalewatching vessels. However, sperm whales were almost seven times more likely to perform a NSE in the presence of whalewatching vessels, and when these occur, the surface time increased a 75% (6 min), which was also associated with changes in the respiration pattern and dynamics. It is unknown whether the observed associated behavioural responses are due to NSEs, or if NSEs are a consequence of disturbing a whale that is already distressed.

As the sperm whale plunges back into the depth, it flukes up high.

The results also suggested that sperm whales might need time to recover from a NSE before engaging in a new foraging dive. Interestingly, the duration of the foraging dive was independent of water depth or the previous surface period (i.e., duration and presence of whalewatching vessels). This means that the occurrence of NSE led to an increase in surface time that was not followed by longer foraging dives. Sperm whales have a low cost of living, low diet quality, and one of the highest diving efficiencies for a diving animal. Their foraging strategies are related to their specific energetic requirements and the behaviour of their prey; therefore, performing longer dives might not be worth the effort. This means that the additional time spent at the surface represents time that will no longer be available for other activities, such as foraging or resting.

The risk-disturbance hypothesis argues that animals perceive human disturbance in a similar manner to nonlethal predation risk, and thus an animal’s response should follow the same economic principles as if encountering a predator, as observed, for example, in elk and birds. Sperm whales do not seem to follow this principle, exhibiting various acoustic and behavioural reactions (and sometimes no reaction at all) to natural and anthropogenic underwater sounds, to the presence of whalewatching platforms and to killer whale presence/sounds (i.e., predators) and attacks. Also, it appears that sperm whales may react less to the presence of tour vessels than other cetacean species, with recent studies only reporting changes in the inter-breath intervals.

This low level of response has also been reported for sperm whales in other areas, such as off Kaikoura, in New Zealand and off the Azores in Portugal. However, the level of exposure should also be considered. In Andenes, under the current level of exposure, the observed short-term effects likely have no biological consequences for the individuals. However, larger number of whalewatching vessels could increase the exposure levels and some individuals may be targeted several times a day by more than one whalewatching vessel, likely increasing the occurrence of the observed short-term effects and potentially leading to long-term consequences.

Near surface events are an easy to identify indicator of likely disturbance, and thus they should be included in regulations or protocols for whalewatching targeting sperm whales. Individuals that show signs of disturbance should be avoided, minimizing or preventing the adverse consequences of cumulative effects. The use of hydrophones as well as increased collaboration between companies, especially with the use of land-based stations to detect whales, can help avoid vessels targeting the same individual. Understanding the occurrence of NSE may well help explain, and avoid, the circumstances under which obvious and subtle responses occur in the presence of whalewatching vessels or other potential stressors.

Ecotourism and you

The International Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as “Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people.” (TIES, 1990). Ecotourism is wildlife tourism, such as whalewatching, that minimises human impact, while building environmental and cultural awareness, providing financial benefits for conservation.

Whalewatching trips are offered in almost every country where cetaceans (including river dolphins) are present. In the era of internet and social media, it is easy for you to find information in advance about the company you plan to use to provide you with an experience of a lifetime. Many countries have developed or adopted whalewatching guidelines and best practices (also see IWC) to minimise the impact of the activity. These provide recommendations on the behaviour of the vessels around the animals as well as the number of boats that can be targeting a given animal or group of animals at the same time. Do not hesitate to ask your guide or captain to show you the guidelines they follow and how they apply and comply with them. Your satisfaction depends on it, and remember that the trip has to be good for you and for the animals too!

As a matter of fact, your satisfaction will not be the result of how close you are to the animals but of the overall experience around wild animals. Each trip is different, and as we interrupt their natural behaviour when we approach them, they will not always be willing to interact with us. A good guide and a responsible captain are key for an exceptional experience, both for you and the animals. And how much better if you can learn about the whales’ biology, behaviour, and conservation concerns, as well as about area while helping local communities? Be an ecotourist!
15April

The Aquatic Wild Meat Database

Why monitoring small cetaceans and other aquatic mammals illegally exploited for food and other purposes is necessary

Mel Cosentino, Lucrecia Souviron-Priego

When people hear about the consumption of small cetaceans such as dolphins and porpoises, the first thing that normally comes to their minds are the well-known dolphin hunts that still occur in some coastal areas of Japan or the “Grindadráp”, name given in the Faroe Islands to the hunt of pilot whales and other dolphin species. However, the exploitation of small cetaceans and other aquatic mammals for food and other purposes is not an isolated event that takes place in a few countries, but is a common activity in many countries worldwide and, in most cases, is illegal or unregulated.

The products derived from big aquatic animals are known as ‘aquatic wild meat’. These products are used for food as well as bait, traditional medicine, and religious ceremonies, and are obtained through illegal or unregulated hunts, although they can be obtained opportunistically as well, from stranded animals and those accidentally caught in fishing gears. In general, this utilisation begins by chance, however, the demand in some areas has expanded and it is growing leading to deliberate hunts, putting some populations at risk.

Collecting data on aquatic wild meat is intrinsically difficult given that much of the processing occurs offshore, illicitly, or away from centralised food markets. The Aquatic Wild Meat Database aims to centralise available data on aquatic mammal utilisation at a global scale. The idea emerged from a group of scientist and then carried out by Mel Cosentino, a conservation biologist who has a special interest in the impact of human activities on marine mammals. Mel joined forces with Lucrecia Souviron Priego, a biologist currently finishing her PhD on the International wildlife trade at the University of Málaga.

Aquatic Wild Meat Database home page. The picture shows a world map colour-coded by number of records per country.

The database contains data of different types or quality that have been collected opportunistically or systematically and the final goal is use these data to answer different questions. The Aquatic Wild Meat Database was presented by Mel at the 70th annual meeting of the Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission Scientific Committee, which was held in Bled, Slovenia, earlier this year. The idea was discussed with scientists specialised in this field from around the world, who will work with us to continue to improve and populate the database.

The development of the application was possible thanks to the support of the Cetacean Society International and ODYSSEA, which funded the application in its early stages; the project was also supported by Oceancare and the Animal Welfare Institute. The alpha version was posted online last year, and it has been updated and improved since then. Technical support is provided by Momchil Vasilev.
31October
A Humanities Student in a World of Science – Acting
Article written by Jaz Henry. He studies English Literature and Philosophy and always thought the world of marine conservation was slightly out of his grasp, not having studied Biology or Zoology. So, this summer, he decided to let experience decide whether pursuing this line of work is the right choice for him. After applying to various projects, he was accepted as an intern for the Namibian Dolphin Project. This is the fourth and last post in a series of articles recounting his weekly experiences as a humanities student in a world of science and conservation.

My final week on the project was another week to remember and once again yielded one experience after the next. Tess Gridley replaced Simon as team leader for the last two weeks and brought a new, but equally fascinating perspective to the work the NDP does. Her focus is on bioacoustics and as such I have gained a more focused and in-depth understanding of the importance and relevance of acoustics in marine mammals. We have been deploying a lot of hydrophones, and beyond knowing that they record the noises dolphins, whales and other ocean dwellers make, I had not extensively thought about how that information is used. Tess explained to me that acoustics can be used for a range of applications, from revealing the changes in biodiversity in different regions by analysing the level of acoustic commotion in those areas over time, to recognising the different ways in which cetaceans and other sea mammals communicate. It can also reveal the effects and extent of issues like noise pollution and tourism, which is fundamental from a conservation point of view.

The main focal point of Tess, Rachel and Darren’s work, is the acoustic repertoire of dolphins, and so naturally leans to the research of how these animals communicate. They use a spectrogram to visually depict the frequencies and duration of the noises made by the cetaceans which have been picked up by a hydrophone. They then categorise these sounds and try and associate the different categories with different behavioural patterns to understand what the dolphins are trying to communicate with the different noises they make. For instance, dolphins use clicks to identify their prey. The closer they get to their dinner, the more frequent the clicks become, because they are signals that bounce off the prey and back to the dolphin. When a dolphin is about to catch its prey, the clicks become so bunched together that it resembles a buzz to the human ear, and so this noise in the acoustic repertoire of dolphins has appropriately been coined a “buzz”. Another key feature of dolphin acoustics is their signature whistle. Each dolphin develops a whistle in their first year or so of life which is unique to them and acts as a name would to a human. A mother may use her signature whistle to locate her calf in the vast ocean should it have veered off course, and the calf might reply with its mother’s whistle or otherwise with its own signature noise, identifying itself amongst the crowd. The whistles tend to be longer than clicks and vary in frequency and can thus be seen as separate sounds on a spectrogram, giving each dolphin an identity. In terms of noise pollution, I witnessed what clanging doors sound like under water, from a recording of dolphins in captivity, and what a boat motoring along produces on a spectrogram and it is a shocking contrast to the fleeting and peaceful hustle and bustle of the dolphins.

Tess’ presence spurred on the development of a side project the NDP is working on: the “Jackalogue”. It consists of collecting all the data on the numerous jackals around Walvis Bay and creating a catalogue of each individual.

A jackal at Pelican Point, Walvis Bay. Photographer: Monique Laubscher

As a result, we conducted another land survey this week, during which I experienced some old-school hands-on conservation action. Naude, one of the kayak guides who rescues the local Cape fur seals from entanglement invited us to join him on one of his disentanglement patrols. We did so eagerly, and he soon found a pup burdened by fishing line. Very few words were spoken before he sprinted in amongst the colony of seals, grabbed the unfortunate individual and began cutting loose the line. The other seals all waddled into the ocean befuddled. He soon had the youngster freed from its human prison and let it scurry into the water to join its confused family.
Naude's rescue of the entangled pup. Photographer: Monique Laubscher

The main problem this week, and a fitting one to leave open ended, was plastic. One day, returning from sea, we began picking plastic and other litter out of the ocean, only to find that piece upon piece of waste seemed to trail on into the distance. It was disheartening, and we could not pin the origin of this long line of rubbish. Eventually, we plucked a whole bin bag, contents included, out of the water and could but sigh at the thought that somewhere along the line this whole bag had been dumped into the sea. Plastic was everywhere, and it can easily kill the cetaceans that live in the area. Should a young calf, adventurous in nature, decide to taste the strange floating entity it sees on the surface, suffocation or contamination is probable. Plastic is obviously the most talked about problem facing the oceans today, so I will refrain from going into too much depth, since I do not want to take away from the importance of the issues I have outlined in the last week, which are of equal weighting. Beyond removing plastic from the sea when it is encountered on the boat and organising occasional beach cleans, the NDP is limited in what it can do to tackle this problem, since to investigate the full effects and level of plastic pollution in Walvis Bay would require years of dedicated and targeted research which is outside the scope of the NDP’s focus. They have however begun to photograph and document litter removed from the ocean and may use this documentation to serve as evidence in future discussions and provide a foundation for mapping where and what sort of waste is being found, allowing for more targeted future projects.

All the litter collected from a brief clean up on the beach. Photographer: Monique Laubscher

This concludes my time at the Namibian Dolphin Project, and with it comes another lesson. Between all the beautiful sights, ugly deaths, problems and solutions, what stayed consistent was a sense of purpose and achievement. This is something that is consistent with the common view of conservation and something I hoped would always be the case at the end of my internship: it is worth it. Though this sort of work has a great many more complexities than I ever imagined, there is a common and omniscient goal that runs throughout and finding solutions through communication with communities and careful observation is extremely rewarding when progress is made. I can safely say that I cherished every moment and that for those willing to step out of their comfort zone and be active, conservation yields endless moments of awe, fascination and improvement.

Link to week 1, week 2, and week 3 articles.
You can find more information on the research, conservation and outreach projects of the Namibian Dolphin Project on their website. Here you can also check for upcoming internship opportunities if you want to experience Namibian conservation work firsthand.